CHAPTER 3 – PHILOSOPHY AS A SECOND ORDER DISCIPLINE
In this chapter, the examiner expects you to know the role philosophy plays as a second – order discipline to other fields of study. Here, philosophy picks to pieces [critically analyzes] the principles, concepts and methodologies of other academic fields of study. The primary aim of this is not to itemize the pitfalls of these disciplines but to bring about an improvement altogether. On the basis that philosophy can play a second – order role to almost any discipline, we are going to look at the following academic disciplines among others.
Outline:
ü The Philosophy of SCIENCE
ü The Philosophy of LAW
ü The Philosophy of POLITICAL SCIENCE [political philosophy]
ü The Philosophy of RELIGION
THE PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE: WHAT YOU MUST KNOW???
ü Science is derived from the Latin word – S C I E N T I A and it means organized and proven knowledge.
ü The main or primary characteristics of science are: (a) it should be SPECIFIC (b) it should be PUBLIC (c) it should be IMPERSONAL and (d) it should be OBJECTIVE.
ü The ‘specificity of science’ simply implies that it is ‘verifiable’ and ‘observable’. The ‘public nature of science’ means it is ‘accessible’ to every tom, dick and harry who may be interested in it. Science being ‘impersonal’ means it is disconnected from ‘individual beliefs’ and ‘ideological colorations’. It was J. AIGBODIONwho said: “that the sciences are IMPERSONAL is to say that they do not involve idiosyncratic beliefs, i.e. beliefs and ideals which result from one’s peculiar power of imagination”.
ü The ‘objectivity of science’ means that its outcomes should be concrete and remain the same under the same condition for any inquirer using the same methods.
ü There exist some philosophical problems with the ‘objectivity’of science but the most noticeable is that of the relationship between ‘cause’ and ‘effect’. According to KARL POPPER, science must always come up with ‘conjectures’ [guesses, inferences, speculations, assumptions etc.] that are ‘falsifiable’. According to DAVID HUME, the relationship between CAUSE and EFFECT which is usually taken to be the foundation of natural sciences, is never really established. Therefore, no scientific theory or law is so perfect that it cannot be proven wrong.
ü It was KARL POPPER who said – THERE IS NO TRUTH IN SCIENCE.
ü It was THOMAS KUHN who classified science into – Abnormal, Normal and Revolutionary Science
ü It was IMRE LAKATOS who classified Science into – Hard core, Protective belt, Negative heuristic, Positive heuristicand progressive/degenerative stage.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF LAW: WHAT YOU MUST KNOW???
ü This philosophy begins with a philosophical question asked by DENNIS LLOYD, is LAW necessary?
ü Dennis Lloyd said that this question he asked may seem simple or regarded as unnecessary but upon careful observation, there lies much sense in it. He based his belief on the idea that most Western Philosophers e.g. Plato, Karl Marx etc., have in one way or the other supported the rejection of law.
ü On the contrary, as expected anyways, there are philosophers who strongly feel the need for laws in society. For example, LON FULLER, in his book THE MORALITY OF LAW.
ü Law is necessary for the maintenance of order in the society thereby creating a system of social equilibrium.
ü It was T. PARSON who said that the ‘function of law is a generalized mechanism of social control that operates diffusely in virtually all sectors of the community”.
ü It was HOEBEL who said that “LAW defines WHO has AUTHORITY and over WHAT”. Those who go against laws are regarded as – D E V I A N T S.
ü Here, there exists two main constituents of law – The Natural Law and The Positivist Law Theories.
ü Natural Law is the application of law based on ‘Universal Reason’. It was vividly explained by GLENVILLE WILLIAMS.
ü It was ST. THOMAS AQUINAS who said that ‘apart from secular reasons, MORAL LAWS are also derived from DIVINE SOURCES’. It was F. KESSLER who wrote the book Theoretic Basis of Law.
ü The main proponents [supporters] of the Natural Law Theory are – Thomas Aquinas, Cicero, Aristotle, J. Carness etc.
ü The Positivist Theory of Law states that – Laws would simply laws with or without any moral grounding. Philosophers who belong here include – J. Austin, J. Bentham, H.A.L. Hart etc.
ü There exist other theories of law such as – Eternal and Divine Theories of Law respectively.
ü The very act of NOT OBEYING Laws promulgated by authorized or competent authority is termed Civil Disobedience.
ü ‘….civil disobedience is part of the fundamental human rights of all humankind and not to have it, is to be less than human’. This statement was made by N. GANDHI. While According to JANE SHARP, civil disobedience is a peaceful disagreement with constituted authorities. HOWARD ZINN on the other hand said that ‘civil disobedience is the deliberate violation of a Law for a vital social purpose’.
ü Civil Disobedience is permissible where some laws are perceived as morally wrong or faulty. However, some philosophers such as SOCRATES and HOBBES totally disagree. According to them, all who belong to a state or accept to belong to a state must OBEY the Laws made by the State.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE: WHAT YOU MUST KNOW???
ü Political Philosophy can be traced back to SOCRATES and the kind of political philosophy that began from Socrates was known as CLASSICAL POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY.
ü ARISTOTLE based his political philosophy on ‘happiness’ and ‘virtue’ as the end and this should be realized by the polis [the State]. Aristotle wanted to create a sort of state he called Utopian, meaning ‘a perfect state’.
ü It was ARISTOTLE who also explained the relationship between the RULER and THE RULED. He said the RULER has more foresight than the RULED just as the MALE [men] are more rational than the FEMALE [women].
ü St. Augustine belonged to the Medieval Era of political philosophy and he ventured into this in a bid to protect/defend the church. He did this using his book titled THE CITY OF GOD and according to him a proper notion of politics can only be ‘divinely inspired’. He tried fusing the CHURCH with the STATE while portraying the former as the SENIOR PARTNER to achieve the same goal, which is, ‘the common good of the universe’.
ü To St. Augustine, those who seek the beatitude for the STATE through the church belong to what he called – THE HEAVENLY CITY. While those who seek this through just dealings and all things belonging to good manners make up the EARTHLY CITY which is doomed for destruction.
ü NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI belongs to the Modern Era of political philosophy. He explored the psychology of man in the area of ‘governance’. His political philosophy questions the loyalty and dependability of the human character. He is equally the author of the following books – The Florentine Histories, The Art of WAR, The Discourses on The First Decades of Linus Livius and The Prince.
ü FREDERICK NIETZSCHE a political philosopher of the contemporary period conducted his political philosophy on ‘how to achieve happiness’ which in his own opinion is, FORGETTING THE PAST and living in the PRESENT.
ü It was FREDERICK NIETZSCHE who said that – “the DEATH OF GOD is the discovery of Man’s CREATIVITY”. His philosophy generally is founded on the ‘will to power’, ‘the need to overcome’.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION: WHAT YOU MUST KNOW???
ü It was ST. ANSELM who stated in chapter five of his book The Monologium that it is the nature of GOD to exist while the existence of other beings depends on God’s existence.
ü God is that man which no greater can be conceived. This was a statement made by St. Anselm.
ü THOMAS AQUINAS in his book – SUMMA THEOLOGICA argued the existence of God on the grounds of self-evidence.
ü Other philosophical issues that arose here include the – Omniscience and Omnipotence of God.
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